In the era of integrated communication and computing, digitalization, broadband, and intelligence have become key trends in the evolution of communication systems. As society’s demands for telecommunications services continue to grow, access networks—being a critical part of the telecom infrastructure—have become the capillary and bottleneck of the entire network. They play a crucial role in enabling digitalization, broadband, and service integration. An embedded system is a specialized computer system designed around specific applications, combining hardware and software tailored for particular functions. It finds extensive use in industries such as manufacturing, process control, communication, instrumentation, automotive, aerospace, military equipment, and consumer electronics. An on-board communication interface refers to a pathway or bus that connects different integrated circuits with peripheral devices. Several common interfaces are used in embedded systems, including I2C, SPI, UART, 1-Wire, and parallel interfaces. Each has its own characteristics and applications. The I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit) bus is a two-wire serial communication protocol that allows bidirectional data transfer. It was developed by Philips in the 1980s, originally intended for connecting microcontrollers to TV peripherals. The I2C bus uses a serial clock line (SCL) and a serial data line (SDA). It supports multiple master and slave devices, making it ideal for low-speed, short-distance communication. Devices can act as either masters or slaves, depending on the situation. Communication starts with a start condition, followed by the address and read/write bit, and ends with a stop condition. SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) is a four-wire full-duplex protocol, commonly used in high-speed communication. Unlike I2C, it doesn’t require addressing, but instead uses a dedicated chip select signal. SPI is faster and simpler, but lacks built-in error checking. It is often used in applications where speed is more important than flexibility. UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter) is an asynchronous serial communication method that does not rely on a shared clock. Instead, both devices must agree on baud rate, parity, and other settings. UART is widely used in simple serial communication between microcontrollers and external devices. The 1-Wire interface is a single-wire protocol that allows both data and power to be transmitted over one line. It is commonly used in temperature sensors and other low-power devices. Each device has a unique 64-bit ID, allowing for individual addressing on the same bus. Finally, the parallel interface is used for high-speed data transfers, typically in systems where timing precision is essential. It involves multiple data lines and control signals, making it suitable for direct memory-mapped peripherals. These communication protocols each serve different purposes and are chosen based on factors like speed, complexity, and application requirements. Understanding their features helps engineers design efficient and reliable embedded systems.

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